in every way to the important duties
entrusted to them,--James B. Angell, President of Michigan University,
also appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to China, John F. Swift of
California, and William Henry Trescot of South Carolina. They
negotiated two treaties: one relating to the introduction of Chinese
into the United States, and one relating to general commercial
relations. Both treaties were ratified by the Senate, and laws
restricting the immigration of Chinese were subsequently enacted.

Some of the objections to the importation of Chinese on the Pacific
coast apply to certain types of laborers that have been introduced in
the Atlantic States from Hungary and other European countries. Where
the labor is contracted for in Europe at a low price and brought to
the United States to produce fabrics that are protected by customs
duties, a grave injustice is done to the American laborer, and an
illegitimate advantage is sought by the manufacturer. Protective
duties should help both labor and capital, and the capitalist who is
not willing to share the advantage with the laborer is doing much to
break down the protective system. That system would indeed receive a
fatal blow if it should be demonstrated that it does not secure to the
American laborer a better remuneration than the same amount of toil
brings in Europe. Happily the cases of abuse referred to are few in
number and have perhaps proved beneficial in the lesson they have
taught and the warning they have evoked. The allegation that the
exclusion of the Chinese is inhuman and unchristian need not be
considered in presence of the fact that their admission to the country
already provokes conflicts which the laws are unable to restrain. The
bitterest of all antagonisms are those which spring from race. Such
antagonisms can be prevented by wise foresight more easily than they
can be cured after their development is either intentionally or
carelessly permitted.

President Johnson made no appointments to the Supreme Bench during his
Administration. In 1870 President Grant appointed William Strong of
Pennsylvania and Joseph P. Bradley of New Jersey Associate Justices.
The former was an addition to the court; the latter succeeded Robert
C. Grier. In 1872 he appointed Ward Hunt of New York to succeed Samuel
Nelson. In 1873 he appointed Morrison R. Waite Chief Justice to
succeed Salmon P. Chase, who died in May of that year. In 1877
President Hayes appointed J