nst the Sassanids. In the 5th century a new people came from the
east, the Ephthalites (_q.v._) or "white Huns," who subjected Bactria
(about 450); and they were followed by the Turks, who first appear in
history about A.D. 560 and subjugated the country north of the Oxus. Most
of the small principalities of the Tochari or Kushan became subject to
them. But when the Sassanian empire was overthrown by the Arabs, the
conquerors immediately advanced eastwards, and in a few years Bactria and
the whole Iran to the banks of the Jaxartes had submitted to the rule of
the caliph and of Islam.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the earlier times see PERSIA. For the Graeco-Bactrian
and Indo-Scythian kingdoms see (beside articles on the separate
kings):--H. H. Wilson, _Ariana Antiqua_ (1841); Cunningham, "The Greeks of
Bactriana, Ariana and India" in _Numismatic Chronicle_, N. Ser. viii.-xii.;
A. von Sallet, _Die Nachfolger Alexanders des Grossen in Baktrien und
Indien_ (1879); P. Gardner, _The Coins of the Greek and Scythic Kings of
India_ (1886, Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum, x.); A. von
Gutschmid, _Geschichte Irans und seiner Nachbarlaender von Alexander dem
Grossen bis zum Untergang der Arsaciden_ (1888); A. Stein, "Zoroastrian
Deities on Indo-Scythian Coins," _Babylonian and Oriental Record_, i. 1887
(cf. Cunningham, _ib._ ii. 1888); Vincent A. Smith, "The Kush[=a]n or
Indo-Scythian Period of Indian History," _Journal of the R. Asiatic Soc._,
1903 (cf. his _Early History of India_, 2nd ed. 1908); W. W. Tarn, "Notes
on Hellenism in Bactria and India" in _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_, xxii.
1902. For the history and character of the Indian alphabet cf. J. Buhler,
"Indische Palaeographie" (in _Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie_, Bd.
i.). From the Greek authors only a few notices have been preserved,
especially by Justin (and in the prologues of Trogus) and Strabo; for the
later times we get some information from the Byzantine authors and from
Persian and Armenian sources; cf. Th. Noeldeke's translation of Tabari
(_Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden_, 1890) and J.
Marquart, "Er[=a]n[vs]ahr" (_Abhandlungen der koeniglichen Ges. d.
Wissenschaften zu Goettingen_, 1901). The Chinese sources are given by
Deguignes, "Recherches sur quelques evenements qui concernent l'histoire
des rois grecs de la Bactriane," _Mem. de l'acad. des inscriptions_, xxv.;
E. Specht, "Etudes sur l'Asie centrale d'apres les historiens