bed the use of levelling instruments and of the
various digging tools.

We assume here, that the engineering has been already done, and that the
whole system has been carefully staked out, so that every main,
sub-main, and minor is distinctly located, and the fall accurately
ascertained. Until so much has been accomplished, we are unprepared to
put the first spade into the ground.

We propose to give our own experience as to the convenient method of
procedure, with such suggestions as occur to us, for those who are
differently situated from ourselves.

The work of excavation must begin at the outlet, so that whatever water
is met with, may pass readily away; and the outlet must be kept always
low enough for this purpose. If there is considerable fall, it may not
be best to deepen the lower end of the main to its full extent, at
first, because the main, though first opened, must be the last in which
the pipes are laid, and may cave in, if unnecessarily deep at first. In
many cases there is fall enough, so that the upper minors may be laid
and find sufficient fall, before the lower end of the main is half
opened.

With a garden line drawn straight, mark out the drain, with a sharp
spade, on both sides, and remove the turf. If it is desired to use the
turf for covering the pipes, or to replace it over the drains, when
finished, it should at first be placed in heaps outside the line of the
earth to be thrown out.

A plow is used sometimes to turn out the sod and soil; but we have few
plowmen who can go straight enough; and in plowing, the soil is left too
near to the ditch for convenience, and the turf is torn in pieces and
buried, so as not to be fit for use. Usually, it will be found
convenient to remove the turf, if there be any, with a spade, by a line.
Then, a plow may be used for turning out the next spit, and the drain
may be kept straight, which is indispensable to good work. A good
ditching-machine is, of course, the thing needful; but we are
endeavoring in these directions to do our best without it. We have
opened our own trenches entirely by hand labor, finding laborers more
convenient than oxen or horses, and no more expensive.

Many have used the plow in the first foot or two of the cutting, but it
is not here "the first step which costs," but the later steps. After the
first foot is removed, if the ground be hard, a pick or subsoil plow
must be used. A subsoil plow, properly constructed, may be made ver