s from the
_statuts municipaux_. In the improvement and expansion of these statutes
a remarkable activity was displayed by means of an annual _correctio
statutorum_ carried out by specially appointed _statutores_. In the
north, on the other hand, the _carta communiae_, forming as it were the
basis of the commune's existence, seems to have been considered almost
as something sacred and unchangeable.

The constitutional history of the communes in northern France in a
number of points widely differed from that of these _villes
consulaires_. First of all the movement for their establishment in most
cases was to a far greater degree of a revolutionary character. These
revolutions were in the first place directed against the bishops; but
the position both of the higher clergy and of the nobility was here of a
nature distinctly more hostile to the aspirations of the citizens than
it was in the south. As a result the clergy and the nobles were excluded
from all membership of the commune, except inasmuch as that those
residing in the town might be required to swear not to conspire against
it. The commune (_communia, communa, communio, communitas, conjuratio,
confoederatio_) was formed by an oath of mutual help (_sacramentum,
juramentum communiae_). The members were described as _jurati_ (also
_burgenses, vicini, amici_), although in some communes that term was
reserved for the members of the governing body. None but men of free and
legitimate birth, and free from debt and contagious or incurable disease
were received. The members of the governing body were styled _jures_
(_jurati_), _pairs_ (_pares_) or _echevins_ (_scabini_). The last was,
however, as in Germany, more properly the title of the jurors in the
court of justice, which in many cases remained in the hands of the lord.
In some cases the town council developed out of this body; but in the
larger cities, like Rouen, several councils worked and all these names
were employed side by side. The number of the members of the governing
body proper varies from twelve to a hundred, and its functions were both
judicial and administrative. There was also known an arrangement
corresponding to the German _alte und sitzende Rat_, viz. of retired
members who could be called in to lend assistance on important
occasions. The most striking distinction, however, as against the
_villes consulaires_ was the elevation of the president of the body to
the position of _maire_ or _mayeur_ (somet