d were eventually done away with, but they were reinstated in 1966
when alignment with Communist China brought renewed revolutionary
fervor.

How much their organization and operations in 1970 differed from what
they were in 1944 is not clearly understood, but the fact that they were
still called political commissars was a strong indication that they
performed basically the same functions. There is no question but that
the justification for their existence was the same--that is, to ensure
that the ideological and political orientation of the troops and of
their leaders did not deviate from the Party line. The decree that
reinstated the commissars stated that they would be assigned in all
units, subunits, and military establishments. This presumably means that
there are commissars in all base organizations and in tactical units
down at least to the company level.

It is also known that Political Directorates in both the Ministry of
People's Defense and the Ministry of the Interior control the commissars
in the armed forces and the security forces, respectively. Political
commissars are carefully selected from the standpoint of ideological
reliability. Those appointed since 1966 must have had five years of
unblemished Party membership. Those in the armed forces who are attached
to the lower levels of the organizational structure are responsible to
the Political Directorate and the Party organization rather than to
superior officers within the military command channels. Hito Cako was
chief of the People's Army Political Directorate in 1970.

In addition to the military court system, discipline is enforced as part
of the educational and ideological training program by the political
workers who act in conjunction with the Party organizations in service
units. They are invited to take measures necessary against individuals
whose attitude or conduct is considered harmful to the effectiveness of,
or discipline within, the army.

Military Schools

Other than those that are set up for specialized training, there are
three military schools providing curricula aimed at producing officer
personnel or offering advanced military theory. The Skanderbeg military
school is a secondary or preparatory school. It is attended by children
of top Party, government, and military leaders and prepares them for
entrance into the Enver Hoxha United Army Officers School. The Hoxha
school is the oldest military educational institution in the c